The term 'stripped (off)' can be represented by the crossword solution 'PEELED' (6 letters). Stripped (off) is a phrase that means to have been removed or taken away. It is often used in reference to clothing, such as when someone has been stripped of their shirt or pants. It can also refer to the removal of something from a surface, such as paint being stripped off a wall. In general, it is used to describe the act of taking something away from its original state.